UNITS T24

UNITS 1

 TAG QUESTIONS 

Tag questions are short questions that are added to the end of a statement to turn it into a question. They are often used to confirm or clarify information, or to express interest in the listener’s opinion. The structure of a tag question is usually an auxiliary verb followed by a pronoun, which is the opposite of the statement that precedes it. For example, if the statement is “You’re coming with us,” the tag question would be "aren’t you?"

The basic structure of a tag question is:

    

Positive Statement Tag Questions

You will see that most of the time, the auxiliary verb from the positive statement is repeated in the tag and changed to negative.

Negative Statement Tag Questions

Notice that the negative verb in the original statement is changed to positive in the tag.

(-) negative statement						(+) positive tag
subject	auxiliary		main verb			auxiliary	personal pronoun same as subject
It	is	n't	raining,			is	it?
We	have	never	seen		that,	have	we?
You	do	n't	like		coffee,	do	you?
They	will	not	help,			will	they?
They	wo	n't	report		us,	will	they?
I	can	never	do		it right,	can	I?
We	must	n't	tell		her,	must	we?
He	should	n't	drive		so fast,	should	he?
You	wo	n't	be		late,	will	you?
You			are	n't	English,	are	you?
John			was	not	there,	was	he?

For example, everyone knows that snow is white. Look at these questions, and the correct answers:

tag question	correct answer	notes
Snow is white, isn't it?	Yes (it is).	Answer is same in both cases - because snow is white!	But notice change of stress when answerer does not agree with questioner.
Snow isn't white, is it?	Yes it is!
Snow is black, isn't it?	No it isn't!	Answer is same in both cases - because snow is not black!
Snow isn't black, is it?	No (it isn't).

PAST PERFECT VS SIMPLE PAST

The past simple and the past perfect are both tenses used to describe past events in English. The past simple is used to describe a completed action in the past, while the past perfect is used to describe an action that was completed before another action in the past.

For example, consider the following sentences:

• “I ate breakfast before I went to work.” Here, the past simple tense is used to describe two completed actions in the past: eating breakfast and going to work.
• “I had eaten breakfast before I went to work.” Here, the past perfect tense is used to describe an action that was completed before another action in the past. In this case, eating breakfast was completed before going to work.

The following table summarizes the differences between the two tenses:

Past Simple	Past Perfect
Used for a completed action in the past	Used for an action that was completed before another action in the past
Example: “I ate breakfast.”	Example: “I had eaten breakfast before I went to work.”

What's the difference? Present Perfect and Past Simple

Present Perfect Simple	Past Simple
Unfinished actions that started in the past and continue to the present: I've known Julie for ten years (and I still know her).	Finished actions: I knew Julie for ten years (but then she moved away and we lost touch).
A finished action in someone's life (when the person is still alive: life experience): My brother has been to Mexico three times.	A finished action in someone's life (when the person is dead): My great-grandmother went to Mexico three times.
A finished action with a result in the present: I've lost my keys! (The result is that I can't get into my house now).	A finished action with no result in the present: I lost my keys yesterday. It was terrible! (Now there is no result. I got new keys yesterday).
With an unfinished time word (this week, this month, today): I've seen John this week.	With a finished time word (last week, last month, yesterday): I saw John last week.

For example:

MODAL VERBS 

Modal verbs are a type of auxiliary verb that are used to express various meanings such as ability, permission, possibility, obligation, and more. The most commonly used modal verbs in English are can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, and would.

Here is a brief description of each modal verb:

• Can: Used to express ability or possibility. Example: “I can swim.”
• Could: Used to express past ability or possibility, or to make polite requests. Example: “Could you pass the salt?”
• May: Used to express possibility or permission. Example: “It may rain today.”
• Might: Used to express possibility or uncertainty. Example: “I might go to the party tonight.”
• Must: Used to express obligation or necessity. Example: “I must finish my homework before I go out.”
• Shall: Used to make suggestions or offers, or to ask for advice. Example: “Shall we go for a walk?”
• Should: Used to give advice or make suggestions. Example: “You should see a doctor.”
• Will: Used to express future actions or intentions. Example: “I will call you tomorrow.”
• Would: Used to express hypothetical situations or polite requests. Example: “Would you like some tea?”

                       MODAL OF ADVICE

Modal verbs of advice are used to give advice or make suggestions. The most commonly used modal verbs of advice in English are should, ought to, and had better .

Here is a brief description of each modal verb:

• Should: Used to give advice or make suggestions. Example: “You should see a doctor.”
• Ought to: Used to give advice or make suggestions. Example: “You ought to study more.”
• Had better: Used to give strong advice or warnings. Example: “You had better be careful.”

UNITS 2

THE CAUSATIVE 

We use a causative verb when we want to talk about something that someone else did for us or for another person. It means that the subject caused the action to happen, but didn't do it themselves. Maybe they paid, or asked, or persuaded the other person to do it. For example, we can say:

• I cleaned my house. (This means I cleaned it myself).

If I paid someone to clean it, of course I can say:

• A cleaner cleaned my house.

But, another way is to use a causative construction. So I can also say:

• I had my house cleaned.

Have + object + past participle (have something done)

 The form is 'subject + have + object + past participle'.

• I had my car washed.
• John will have his house painted.

Get + object + past participle (get something done)

Use 'subject + get + object + past participle'. This has the same meaning as 'have', but is less formal.

• The students get their essays checked.
• I'll get my hair cut next week.

Have someone do something (have + person + infinitive)

Use the construction 'subject + have + person + infinitive'.

• I had the electrician look at my broken light.
• The doctor will have the nurse call the patients.

THE PASSIVE CAUSATIVES

Causative verbs (have, let, make) are used when one person is causing another to do something. The passive is used when the focus is on the thing instead of the person. When you combine them together, you are essentially saying someone caused something to be done (by someone).

NOUN CLAUSES

A noun clause gets its name because it is simply a clause that acts like a noun. A clause is any group of words that contains both a subject and a verb, but noun clauses are a specific type of clause called a subordinate clause.

Also known as dependent clauses, subordinate clauses cannot be used alone and need to join an independent clause. That means sentences with noun clauses will always have at least two verbs (because they will always have two clauses). Let’s look at a noun clause example:

Whoever wrote the graffiti needs grammar lessons.

How to use noun clauses

Noun clauses can do anything a regular noun can do. This means they can act as a:

Subject

• Direct object.
• Indirect object.
• Prepositional object.
• Predicate nominative.
• 
  
  
  
  
  
• NOUN CLAUSES - EMBEDDED QUESTIONS

We can also use embedded questions as part of statements. The embedded question is a noun clause and can be used in a similar way to a noun. For example, we can use it as the subject or the object of the main clause.

• Normal question: Where does she work?
• Embedded question in a statement: I don't know where she works. (Here 'where she works' is the object.)

• Normal question: Where does she work?
• Embedded question in a statement: Where she works is very far. (Here 'where she works' is the subject.)

Forming embedded questions

We use the same rules with embedded questions in statements as we do with embedded questions in indirect questions.

1. If there is a question word, we keep it.
2. If there is no question word, we use 'if' or 'whether'.
3. We use normal sentence grammar (so we don't need 'do / does / did').
4. We use normal sentence word order (subject + verb, not the opposite).
5. We use a full stop and not a question mark at the end of the sentence.

UNITS 3

The imperative INDIRECT AND DIRECT STYLE

It is normally used by people in positions of authority like parents, teachers, police officers or bosses to give orders or instructions. So be careful not to use the imperative if you want to sound friendly! If we say please at the end of an imperative statement it still sounds like an order, but a more polite order.

Forming the imperative

Before we look at changing imperative statements to indirect speech, let’s look at a few more examples of imperative statements. To form the imperative in English we simply use the infinitive form of the verb, without to:

Open the door!
Stop talking!
Close your books, please.
Tell me the truth!

Indirect Speech Imperatives

When we change an imperative from direct speech into indirect speech we use the verbs told, ordered or commanded and we use the infinitive with to instead of the imperative.

For example:

Direct speech: Open the door!
Indirect speech: He told me to open the door.

When we change a negative imperative from direct speech into indirect speech we must also use the verbs told, ordered or commanded and put the word not before the infinitive. For example:

Direct speech: Don’t close your books!
Indirect speech: The teacher told the students not to close their books.

Reported Statements: Present Simple

Phrase in direct speech	Equivalent in reported speech
Simple present	Simple past
"I always drink coffee", she said	She said that she always drank coffee.
Present continuous	Past continuous
"I am reading a book", he explained.	He explained that he was reading a book
Simple past	Past perfect
"Bill arrived on Saturday", he said.	He said that Bill had arrived on Saturday.
Present perfect	Past perfect
"I have been to Spain", he told me.	He told me that he had been to Spain.
Past perfect	Past perfect
"I had just turned out the light," he explained.	He explained that he had just turned out the light.
Present perfect continuous	Past perfect continuous
They complained, "We have been waiting for hours".	They complained that they had been waiting for hours.
Past continuous	Past perfect continuous
"We were living in Paris", they told me.	They told me that they had been living in Paris.
Future	Present conditional
"I will be in Geneva on Monday", he said.	He said that he would be in Geneva on Monday.
Future continuous	Conditional continuous
She said, "I'll be using the car next Friday".	She said that she would be using the car next Friday.